Drones or Unmanned Vehicles (UAV)

[dalvinder45]

Drones or Unmanned Vehicles (UAV)

Dr Dalvinder Singh Grewal​

Prof Emeritus Desh Bhagat University

Drones or unmanned vehicles (UAV) have become a new factor in warfare and smuggling of drugs and weapons. Two recent news about drones; one on 90 drones attacking Kyiv and another abou seizing of 90 drones along India-Pakistan international borders in Punjab in 2023 alone are quite troublesome and need an analytical study. Kyiv was rocked last week by Russia's largest drone attack since its invasion of Ukraine in February 2022. Ukraine said it shot down 74 of the 75 Iranian-designed Shahed drones launched by Russia in a six-hour air raid on Kyiv. Sixty-six of the drones were downed over Kyiv, Ukraine's air force said. The damage caused power outages for 17,000 people, a city official said. Drone on Kyiv dropped bombs and missiles while drones crossing over from Pakistan to India have been dropping drugs and weapons clandestinely. Bombs and missiles have immediate destructive impact while drugs and weapons have lateral effect on security and safety of India. Drones on Kyiv were downed by missiles while drones in Punjab were downed by LMG/MMG firing. US missiles given to Ukraine have been very effective as can be seen from the downing of 74 missiles fired over Kyiv. Indians could not down all drones along Punjab since a number of them escaped after delivering the material. Thus India needs a drone locating and missile system for destruction of drones which can down all the drones as has been done by Kyiv. Counter drone technology has come long way. It encompasses a wide range of solutions that allow you to detect, classify, and mitigate drones and unmanned aerial vehicles. This includes everything from camera systems and specialist drone detection radar to net guns and cyber takeover systems.

Drone Monitoring Equipment can be passive (simply looking or listening) or active (sending a signal out and analysing what comes back) and can perform several functions, includingetection (b) Classification or Identification (c) Locating and Tracking (d) Alerting

Not all equipment perform all the above functionality at the same time. Detection means the technology can detect drones. Detection alone usually isn’t enough though. A radar that detects drones may also detect birds, for example. That’s why classification is useful. Technology that classifies drones will usually be able to separate drones from other types of objects - like planes, trains, and automobiles, for example.

One step further is identification. Some equipment can identify a particular model of drone, or even identify the drone’s or controller’s digital fingerprint, like a MAC address for example. This level of identification can be handy for prosecution purposes.

Being alerted that a drone is present somewhere in the vicinity is already useful. But situational awareness and ability to deploy countermeasures are greatly enhanced if drone’s (and/or the controller’s) exact location is known. Some equipment will even allow to track the drone's location in real-time.. Four main types of drone monitoring equipment are (a) Radio Frequency (RF) Analysers (b) Acoustic Sensors (Microphones) (c) Optical Sensors (Cameras) (d) Radar

Radio Frequency (RF) Analysers: RF Analysers consist of one or more antennas to receive radio waves and a processor to analyse the RF spectrum. They’re used to try to detect radio communication between a drone and its controller. Some systems can identify the more common drone makes and models, while others can even identify the MAC addresses of the drone and controller (if the drone uses Wi-Fi for communication). This is especially useful for prosecution purposes – proving that a particular drone and controller were active. Some high-end systems can also triangulate the drone and its controller when using multiple radio units spread far apart.[1]
Some of the new missiles which have proved effective are shown in the image below:

Drone Dome provides a complete and comprehensive solution with a goal of enforcing effective UAV No-Fly zones. Drone Dome is capable of identifying unknown targets, generating alerts (based on an adaptable rules generator), and operating without causing interference to non-target airborne assets by utilizing specific jammer bandwidth and an advanced directional antenna. This is a significant asset of the Drone Dome system when operating in highly congested airspaces (civilian or military). Drone Dome is a modular Anti Drone system and can be used as a stationary or mobile configuration, as well as customized per customer's request.

Drone Dome has very fast response time, with minimal collateral damage to the surrounding environment, and maximum safety to friendly aircraft. Its open architecture enables integration with other effectors and sensors. Its benefits are that
Delivers an off-the-shelf system
Enables soft and hard-kill
Detects targets as small as 0.002 m2, at a distance of 3.5 km
Minimizes collateral damage
Operates in all weather conditions
Offers modular configuration, tailored to customer's requirements
Open architecture enables integration with any sensor, any shooter
Capabilities

In the Drone Dome’s laser-based intercept phase, the laser director receives the target position from the C4I , which allocates it to the laser effector. The effector then locks and tracks the target, and within a few seconds, the laser beam is transmitted and destroys the target.The system can interface with various external systems and also supports future growth options, which includes additional sensors and effectors.[2]

Pros:
Low-cost. Can detect (and sometimes identify) multiple drones and controllers. It's also passive, so you don't need a licence to operate. Some can triangulate drone and controller positions.

Cons:
Doesn’t always locate and track drones. Can’t detect autonomous drones, less effective in crowded RF areas, typically short range. Difficult to detect drones controlled over 5G networks.

Successful RF identification also depends on libraries that require continuous reverse engineering and updating. Reverse engineering and updating take time, during which UAS with modified protocols go unseen. Subscriptions to library updates can be expensive.

Vendors:
Vendors of radio frequency analysers include Rohde & Schwartz, Arizona Dedrone, and CERBAIR.

Optical Sensors (Cameras)

Optical sensors collect light at a range of wavelengths, including visible and infrared, as well as thermal radiation, to detect drones day and night. Recent advances in optical sensor technology have improved resolution (and thereby range) and processing power, in the form of AI-powered detection, tracking, and classification.[3]
Pros:
Provide visuals on the drone and its (potential) payload, can record images as forensic evidence for use in eventual prosecution.
Cons:
Difficult to use for detection by itself, high false-alarm rates, mostly poor performance in dark, fog, etc.
Vendors:
Too many to mention...

Acoustic Sensors (Microphones)

Usually a microphone or microphone array (lots of microphones), that detects the sound made by a drone and calculates a direction. More sets of microphone arrays can be used for rough triangulation.

Pros:
Detects all drones within the near field, including those operating autonomously (without (RF-emissions). Detects drones in the ground clutter where other technologies can struggle. Great gap-filler in areas outside line-of-sight of other sensors; highly mobile and quickly deployable. Completely passive.
Cons:
Doesn’t work as well in noisy environments, very short range (max. 300-500m)
Vendors:
Vendors include Squarehead Technologies.

Radar
A device that uses radio energy to detect an object. Drone detection radar or counter UAS radar sends out a signal and receives the reflection, measuring direction and distance (position).

Most radars send their radio signal as a burst, then listen for the ‘echo’. Almost all radars are designed to NOT pick up small targets. They are designed for large object tracking, like passenger aircraft.



Pro: Long range, constant tracking, highly accurate localisation, can handle hundreds of targets simultaneously, can track all drones regardless of autonomous flight, independent of visual conditions (day, night, fog, etc.)

Cons: Detection range depends on drone size. Most don't distinguish birds from drones. Requires a transmission license and frequency checks to prevent interference.

Vendors: Well, that’d be us then! But we should probably point out here that our own Drone Detection Radar, IRIS®, isn't like standard radars.

For starters, we built IRIS® specifically to track drones. Featuring 360-degree azimuth and 60-degree elevation coverage, IRIS® provides early warning of approaching drones from any direction, in full 3D.

What makes IRIS® unique is that it's a counter UAS, micro-doppler radar.

Micro-doppler radar detects speed differences within moving objects. For example, a drone's rotor. This enables IRIS® to distinguish between drones and other small, fast-moving objects, like birds, reducing false alarms. It can even detect autonomous and hovering drones and track multiple targets simultaneously.

Lightweight and easy to deploy, IRIS® can integrate seamlessly with your existing drone detection systems.



Drone Countermeasure Equipment
Countermeasures can be grouped as either:
Physically destroying the drone
Neutralising the drone
Taking control of the drone
It’s important to note that, although the technology is available, current regulations in most countries forbid the use of any of the following technologies to be used for neutralising drones. Exceptions are sometimes made for military or law enforcement agencies.[2]

Radio Frequency Jammers
An RF Jammer is a static, mobile, or handheld device which transmits a large amount of RF energy towards the drone, masking the controller signal. This results in one of four scenarios, depending on the drone:
The drone makes a controlled landing in its current position
The drone returns to its pre-programmed home location (which could be set to a target position instead of home)
The drone falls uncontrolled to the ground
The drone flies off in a random uncontrolled direction

Pros:
Medium cost, non-kinetic neutralisation.
Cons:
Short range. Can affect (and jam) other radio communications. May result in unpredictable drone behaviour and can unintentionally send the drone to its target.
Vendors:
TRD and HP Wust provide jamming systems.

GPS Spoofers
GPS spoofers send a new signal to the target drone that replaces the communication signal it uses to navigate. In this way, it spoofs the drone into thinking it’s somewhere else.
By dynamically altering the GPS coordinates in real time, the spoofer can control the drone’s position. Once the spoofer gains control, they can direct the drone to a ‘safe zone’, for example.
However, GPS spoofers can inadvertently disrupt other systems beyond the target drone. Because of the risks, GPS spoofers are primarily used on the battlefield and aren't as common for civilian operations.
Pros:
Medium cost, non-kinetic neutralisation.
Cons:
Short range, can affect (and jam) other radio communications.
Vendors:
Regulus manufactures GPS spoofers specifically for drone defence.
High Power Microwave (HPM) Devices
High Power Microwave (HPM) devices generate an Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) capable of disrupting electronic devices.
The EMP interferes with radio links and disrupts or even destroys the electronic circuitry in drones (plus any other electronic device within range) due to the damaging voltage and currents it creates.
HPM devices may include an antenna to focus the EMP in a certain direction, reducing potential collateral damage.
Pros:
Within range, the drone can be stopped effectively, non-kinetic.
Cons:
High cost, risk of unintentionally disrupting communications or destroying other electronic devices in the area, drone effectively switches off instantly falling uncontrolled to the ground.
Vendors:
Diehl Defence provides an HPEM solution.

Nets and Net Guns
Firing a net at a drone, or otherwise bringing a net into contact with a drone stops the drone by prohibiting the rotor blades. There are three main types:
Net Cannon fired from the ground: can be hand-held, shoulder-launched, or turret-mounted. Anywhere from 20m to 300m effectiveness. Can be used with or without a parachute for controlled descent of the captured drone.
Net cannon fired from another drone: overcomes the limited range of a net cannon on the ground. Can be difficult to capture another moving drone. Normally used with a parachute for controlled descent of the captured drone.
Hanging net deployed from a ‘net drone’. The drone is captured by manoeuvring the friendly net-carrying drone towards the rogue drone. The ‘net drone’ will normally be capable of either carrying the rogue drone to a safe zone or if it is too heavy, can release the captured drone with or without a parachute for controlled descent.
Pros:
Physically captures drone – good for forensics and prosecution, ground-launched net cannons are semi-automatic with high accuracy, drone deployed nets have long range, low risk of collateral damage.
Cons:
As a kinetic solution, it can result in debris (depending on parachute options). Drone-deployed nets can be imprecise and have long reload times, ground-launched nets have a short range. Drone-mounted netguns often struggle to intercept and neutralize hostile drones that fly aggressively or evasively, due to inertia.
Vendors:
Fortem Technologies' Drone Hunter 700 supports three netgun attachments that enable it to stop drones of almost any size. Additionally, Open Works Engineering offers both shoulder-mounted and turret-mounted net cannons.

High-energy lasers
A high-powered optical device which produces an extremely focused beam of light, or laser beam. The laser defeats the drone by destroying the structure and/or the electronics.
Pros:
Long-range, low-cost-per-kill solution. Physically stops and destroys target drones to neutralise threats quickly. Doesn't require physical ammunition, like nets.
Cons:
Large system. Mostly experimental. Risk of collateral damage to other airborne targets and people at ground level, especially to eyes.
Vendors:
Lockheed Martin and Raytheon.

Cyber Takeover Systems

Cyber takeover, or cyber takedown, systems are a relatively new counter-drone technology. They passively detect radio frequency transmissions emitted by drones to identify the drone's serial number and locate the pilot's position using AI. If the operator recognises the drone as a threat, they can send a signal to hack the drone, assume control, and direct it to a safe location.
Pros:
Precise, with a low risk of collateral damage. Lightweight, and can be configured for both static and mobile applications. Automatically captures incident data vital for forensic investigation. Effective against both piloted and autonomous drones.
Cons:
New and largely untested technology. Relies on an up-to-date library of commercial drones, making it less effective against homemade or state-developed drones.
Vendors:
D-Fend Solutions' Enforce Air System is one of the market leaders for counter-drone takeover technology.

Integrating it All Together
It’s more than likely that the best drone detection solution for you is going to be a mix of the above technologies. Which mix exactly? Well, that’s going to be dependent on your specific use case.
We work with several integrators all over the world who integrate our radars into modular counter-drone systems, so you don’t have to. This solves the headache of dealing with multiple vendors and means you don’t need to integrate different hardware and software solutions.

Talking about software; Command & Control (C2) software can make or break your counter-drone system. All the data from those different sensors and technologies need to be collected, processed and displayed in a user-friendly way that makes sense and is actionable.
So, it pays to make sure you’re getting a scalable, sensor-agnostic, and user-friendly C2 solution with your system.
Good examples of counter-drone C2 systems are Esg’s Elysion, Dedrone's DedroneTracker, and Operational Solutions’ Face.

C2-systems vary significantly in terms of capability and cost. The complexity of the connected sensors and effectors, the type of threat, and your budget influence whether you require all the bells and whistles or a more basic system. However, drone defence companies are developing industry standards for C-UAS integration, with SAPIENT's out-of-the-box data integration capabilities at the forefront.

This is not the whole story, of course. While data interoperability is a pre-requisite, do not underestimate the importance of other C2-system functions like data fusion, workflow management, and decision support.
Here’s a small selection of companies offering complete and modular counter-drone systems worldwide. (a) ESG (DE) (b) Operational Solutions (UK) (c) TRD (SG) (d) CS Group (FR)

BAE Systems

BAE Systems successfully completed ground-to-air test firings of its Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System (APKWS) against drones, which have seen increased weaponization, most prominently by Russia in its attack against Ukraine.
In the recent demonstration in Southern Arizona, five of the laser-guided 70 mm rockets were fired from a containerized weapons system and destroyed all class 2 unmanned aerial systems (UAS) targets. Class 2 UAS weigh approximately 25 to 50 pounds and can travel at speeds over 100 mph.

The test demonstrated the APKWS guidance kits’ ability to conduct low-cost, precision strikes against airborne threats, BAE Systems said. The laser-guided rockets have already been widely deployed in air-to-ground roles on U.S. aircraft, including the AH-64 Apache, UH-60 Black Hawk and F-16 Fighting Falcon.

“Militarized drones are becoming more prevalent in conflicts around the world, and we’re giving our customers an efficient way to counter them without wasting expensive missiles,” said Greg Procopio, director of Precision Guidance and Sensing Solutions at BAE Systems. “Our tests demonstrate that APKWS guidance kits have the flexibility to engage a variety of targets to meet the evolving mission needs of the warfighter.”

In July, BAE Systems successfully fired the rockets from its experimental robotic combat vehicle (RCV) at multiple ground targets during the U.S. Army’s annual Experimental Demonstration Gateway Event (EDGE) at the Dugway Proving Ground in Utah.

The 70 mm rockets can destroy class 2 drones by combining standard motors and warheads with APKWS guidance kits and proximity/point-detonation fuzes. BAE Systems bills the system as an effective midpoint between low-cost unguided rockets and expensive anti-armor missiles. The kit can be combined with existing stocks of 70 mm/2.75-inch rocket motors, warheads and launchers. The guidance section is simply inserted between the motor and warhead with no modifications required, BAE Systems said.

The ability to deploy a low-cost, anti-drone weapon would be welcome news in Ukraine, which has increasingly been targeted by armed UAS. Russia sent a swarm of 45 armed drones into the country on New Year’s Eve, according to media reports.

German-made Gepard systems prove to be best at shooting down drones {4)

Gepard Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Missile System And The Ukrainian Military, May 2023. Photo: General Staff Of The Armed Forces Of Ukraine
German-Made Gepard Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Systems Have Shown The Best Results In shooting down Russian drones in terms of cost-effectiveness.
Source: Yurii Ihnat, spokesman of Ukraine's Air Force, in an interview with RBC-Ukraine
: "Therefore, it is necessary to increase the number of assets that will be rational for shooting down UAVs. Today, Gepard is the best in this regard – in terms of cost-effectiveness. But it also has a limited range – 4.5 kilometres to shoot down, using ground-based projectiles. Therefore, we need more of them, both Gepard systems and their analogues." He also said that in six months of attacks on the energy facilities (from 9 September 2022 to 12 March 2023), Ukraine shot down 750 cruise missiles, while about 1,100 were launched. Ihnat added that Russia currently has 870 of Kinzhal hypersonic missiles and both types of Iskander missiles (meaning ballistic and cruise ones), as well as Kh-22, Kalibr, Kh-101, and Kh-555 cruise missiles.
References
[1] 10 Types of Counter Drone Technology to Detect and Stop Drones Today
[2] https://www.rafael.co.il/worlds/air-missile-defense/c-uas-counter-unmanned-aircraft-systems/
[3] 10 Types of Counter Drone Technology to Detect and Stop Drones Today